Rowing

Fitness Testing Assignment: Rowing - by Trish Formby

Contents

• Introduction
• Characteristics of Successful Rowers
• Training Requirements
• Testing Procedures
• Other Tests
• Conclusion
• References

Introduction

In any sport physical assessment may be used to determine physical work capacity and predict physiological potential of athletes (Koutedakis 1989). There is a general consensus that a number of factors contribute to rowing, however the extent to which each does so is rarely quantified (Kramer 1994).

Physiological assessment is often used in the selection of teams for competition and therefore it is important that laboratory simulation is chosen to reflect an athletes potential on the water (Koutedakis 1989). Laboratory rowing does not always however indicate performance because it does not involve the psychological aspects of competition such as motivation, mental strength and team coordination (Steinacker 1993).

The difficulties associated with standardisation and quantification of on water testing often make this form of physiological testing impractical. For this reason ergometers have become the standard instrument to assess rowing performance.

There are three major aims associated with physiological testing of the rower. These are:

1. to assess the characteristics believed to be determinants of rowing success
2. to establish appropriate guidelines for training intensity and
3. to ensure rowers are coping and adapting to prescribed training regimens

(Hahn and Bourdon 1995).

Characteristics of Successful Rowers

Body Type

There is evidence that anthropometric characteristics may have some influence on rowing performance. Successful rowers tend to be taller and heavier than other endurance athletes (Hahn and Bourdon 1995). This is because their body weight is supported by the boat and therefore they can afford to carry a greater mass (Steinacker 1993). Studies of high level rowers have quoted average weights of 77-85 kg and heights of 182 - 188.5 cm for heavy weight men (Gullstrand 1996; Messonier 1997) and one study of 20 female rowers measured average weight of 72.6 kg and height of 177cm in the heavy weight category. Rowers also tend to have low body fat (Hahn and Bourdon 1995).

Longer limbs are an advantage due to the catch and drive action involving all four extremities, resulting in a longer stroke (Steinacker 1993). Arm length on average has been measured from 77-90cm for men and 68-82cm including heavy and light weight rowers (Hahn and Bourdon 1995)

The leg drive is considered to be the major contributor to propulsion during rowing and therefore high knee extensor strength is also advantageous (Kramer et. al. 1991). Knee extensor strength may be symmetrical or asymmetrical depending on whether the athlete is a sweep rower (two oars used bilaterally) or a sculler (one oar used unilaterally).

Physiologic Characteristics

Rowing is a cyclic movement in which the arms and legs work in synchrony with the trunk (Steinacker 1998). Rowers utilise about 70% of their muscle mass during the rowing action and require increased muscular strength to accelerate the boat at the commencement of a race and maintain the speed for the duration (Steinacker 1993).

More successful rowers have a higher percentage of ST fibres than less able rowers with values as high as 85% quoted for internationally competitive rowers. Conversely these rowers have fewer glycolytic fast twitch (FT) fibres (type IIb) and intermediate fibres (type IIc). It is also evident that hypertrophy of the ST fibres occurs more readily in highly successful rowers (Steinacker 1993).

The absolute number of mitochondria in trained rowers has been demonstrated to be elevated for both ST and FT fibres which would indicate a higher oxidative capacity of both types of fibre ( Steinacker 1993).

Roth et al (1993) demonstrated physiological variability between individual rowers depending on their position in the boat.This study examined the deltoid muscle of stroke rowers and bow rowers and found that stroke rowers had a lower percentage of ST fibres, achieved higher blood lactate levels, accelerated more body parts and demonstrated a higher increase in force.

Flexibility

Rowers require adequate flexibilty to prevent overuse injuries and undue stress on the body as well as achieving a good technique. Rowers must demonstrate sufficient hamstring length to allow for a long stroke but be able to maintain correct posture of the pelvis, low back and thoracic spine. Adequate hip flexibility to allow the thighs to approximate the trunk in the catch position is also important (Kramer et al 1991).

A study investigating the effects of shortened hamstring length on the upright and toe touching position found that decreased hamstring length led to a decrease in lumbar flexion and an increase in thoracic flexion (Gajdosik et al 1994). Although measurements were taken in standing the position replicates the forward reach and catch phase of rowing. These results suggest that decreased hamstring length may lead to overuse injury with the repetitive rowing action.

Harvey (1998) compared the flexibility of 117 athletes of various sports in the Modified Thomas test position. Their results concluded that rowers had more flexibilty in the quadriceps but less in the iliopsoas compared to other sports. The length of the tensor fascia lata and the iliotibial band did not demonstrate any difference between groups.

Sweep rowers must also demonstrate adequate trunk rotation about a vertical axis toward to the oarside during the catch position in combination with arm reach (Kramer et al 1991).

Training Requirements

Energy Systems

Competitional rowers display maximal oxidative and maximal anaerobic metabolic effort during racing (Steinacker 1993). At competition level rowing a race of 2000m takes between 5.5 and 8.0 minutes requiring maintenance of high power for the duration (Steinacker 1998). Aerobic energy is thought to account for 70-75% of the energy (Messonier 1997, Gullstrand 1996) and anaerobic energy for the remaining 20 - 25%. Steinacker (1993) estimates that during the race situation 67% of enegy is derived from the aerobic system, 21% alactic anaerobic and 12% lactic anaerobic.

Due to the high component of aerobic metabolism required it is clear that VO_{2 max} is an important predictor of competitional success. VO₂max has been measured as high as 6.0- 6.6 l/min in world class rowers. The relative VO₂max is low however compared to other endurance athletes due to the high body mass of rowers (Steinacker 1993). VO_{2 max} tends to increase with training but generally levels off at 5000 - 6000km of rowing training per year (Steinacker 1998).

Messonier (1997) states that glycolytic processes also provide an important part of the energy supply with elevated lactate levels measured as high as 15 - 17mmol/l at the end of competition. In a study performed on 12 male rowers Messonier (1997) demonstrated increased lactate exchange and removal abilities in highly trained rowers allowing sustained performance at high power. Theoretically, in athletes with similar aerobic capacity, those with improved ability to remove lactate would be capable of rowing and maintaining higher intensities.

During low intensity training it has been demonstrated that blood lactate levels below 2mmol/l indicate lipolysis as the main substrate utilised in the Krebs cycle (Steinacker 1993) which would also account for the leanness of rowers. Lipolysis also delays the formation of lactic acid during incremental exercise.

Training Regimens

The specificity of training for rowing is very important. Rowers expend high energy levels during racing thus high aerobic, anaerobic alactic and anaerobic lactate metabolism are stressed maximally. Inappropriate training may lead to poor results during competition and, in the long term, "burnout" (Steinacker 1998).

During training rowers perform 15-40 strokes per minute. This increases to 32-38 strokes per minute during a race situation. Peak force at the start of a race is approximately 1000-1500W and then levels off to 500-700 W. In total between 210 and 230 strokes are performed during a race (Steinacker 1993) over a distance of 2000m which takes about 6.5 minutes (Gullstrand 1996).

About 70-80% of rowing training occurs on the water with the other 20 to 30% comprising of ergometer training, running and gym work (Steinacker 1993). It is important that on water training occurs because ergometer training can not simulate the conditions associated with on water rowing such as currents and wind and the skill required for steering and balance.

Rowers need physical power to achieve high power per stroke and endurance to sustain this power over 2000m. These concurrent requirements present problems because training for strength and endurance are not compatible in one training session (Steinacker 1998).

Training is generally organised into phases of high load to induce a training response and phases of low load to promote recovery (Steinacker 1998). Only a fraction of training occurs at competition level because incomplete recovery from repeated high intensity training results in higher lactate levels and risks overtraining due to frequent muscle acidosis (Gullstrand 1996). Steinacker (1993) suggests that only 10% of training should be performed above the anaerobic threshold level.

During intensive training on the water it is important that the correct intensity is applied to stimulate aerobic endurance without causing metabolic acidosis. In a study by Urhausen et al (1993) they determined that blood lactate levels can be predicted during on water endurance training by first establishing heart rate and blood lactate relationships on an ergometer. This then allows the heart rate to be used to monitor intensity and prevent the risk of overtraining. Mahler (1984) supported this theory by determining heart rate responses at the anaerobic threshold and developing specific programs to optimise training.

Gullstrand (1996) suggests an intermittent training regimen which involves 15 second work periods at high intensity followed by 15 second rest periods.Their study recorded high oxygen uptake and high heart rate with only small increases in blood lactate levels indicating that intermittent training may be introduced into competition training to impose positive aerobic effects without encountering negative effects of acidosis.

Testing Procedures

Ergometers

The major reasons for using stationary ergometers are to enable standardisation and practicality of testing. Both cycle and treadmill ergometers have been utilised however the preferred method is with a rowing ergometer due to its specificity (Tumilty et al 1987).

Principally two types of ergometers have been utilised for testing, namely the Gjessing and the Concept II (Lormes 1993). The Gjessing is a friction braked flywheel and the Concept II is a wind resistance braked ergometer.The Concept II is regarded by some to simulate more closely the rowing action in boat (Koutedakis 1997) by mimicing the required power production to accelerate a boat.

A study by Lormes (1993) investigated differences between the Gjessing and Concept II ergometers by comparing performance and blood lactate during similar exercise testing. They found blood lactate levels to be lower in the Concept II for the same heart rate on both ergometers which indicates higher anaerobic metabolic effort on the Gjessing ergometer. The authors also found a difference in power production between the two ergometers with higher power produced on the Concept II ergometer.

Predictions Based on Ergometer Testing

The endurance capacity of individual rowers, measured as the power which elicits a blood lactate level of 4.0mmol/l is the most predictive parameter for competition. It is generally believed that work output is seriously compromised once the 4.0mmol/l is reached. With higher percentages of ST fibres rowers are able to perform with more power per stroke at a blood lactate level of 4.0mmol/l (Beneke 1995, Steinacker 1998).

Under most circumstances the increase in heart rate, VO₂ and CO₂ output increase linearly until the onset of blood lactate accumulation. At the point where blood lactate production exceeds removal the minute ventilation and VCO₂ will rise rapidly whereas VO₂ will remain linear (Beneke 1993). Any increases in work rate beyond this level represents anaerobic work therefore the rate of accumulation of lactic acid can be decreased by improving the anaerobic threshold.

In highly trained rowers the anaerobic threshold corresponds to approximately 80 - 85% of maximal performance. The anaerobic threshold is generally calculated at 4.0mmol/l (Lormes 1993; Roth 1993) and the VO₂ measured at this level is also about 85% of VO₂max (Steinacker 1993). There has been some suggestion that an individual lactate threshold be utilised because studies have indicated that steady state lactate levels occur at higher or lower levels than 4.0mmol/l for individual rowers although individual anaerobic threshold and anaerobic threshold at 4.0mmol/l are highly correlated (Beneke 1993).

Usually measures of physical performance available from ergometer rowing are related to power output and stroke rate (Smith et al. 1993). Smith et al (1993) compared descriptive variables such as stroke consisitency and stroke rate in ergometer testing and rowing on water. The results showed that consistency was poorer on the water which may be expected due to conditions and stroke rate was higher on the water which tended to be related to a shorter stroke length.

Various studies have looked at the ability to predict on water performance by ergometer testing and the relationships between measures of rowing performance and descriptive variables.Kramer et al. (1994) assessed rowing performance of 20 female athletes on a Concept II ergometer and then related the results to other standardised tests including anthropometric data, field tests, VO₂max and quadriceps strength. They concluded the highest correlations were between rowing performance as measured in the 2500m ergometer time and VO₂max which concur with other studies in that oxygen uptake is a key component of rowing performance.

Testing Methods

One of the earliest recordings of physiological testing for rowers was prior to the 1968 Olympics when two of the New Zealand team members for the coxed four were chosen based on their laboratory measurements. Physiological profiling began to receive much attention and objective testing methods devised (Koutedakis 1989).

No single parameter measures fitness, composite of maximal oxygen uptake, muscle strength, local muscle endurance and body composition therefore more than one test is required to examine all aspects of fitness (Koutedakis 1989).

Tests which resemble competition in terms of action, duration and intensity are necessary to accurately determine the capacity of an athlete for their chosen sport, in this case rowing (Tumilty et al 1987).

There are three main protocols which can be used for cardio-respiratory and metabolic assessment of rowers:

• An all-out continous test where the athletes must perform maximally for a pre-determined period, usually six minutes (Koutedakis 1989). A similar test has been described by other authors based on distance rather than time. These are the 2000m and 2500m ergometer tests (Hahn and Bourdon 1995; Kramer 1994). The all-out continuous test most closely simulates a race situation and is also used in indoor rowing ergometer competition (Kramer et al 1994). The results of the all-out test will provide information on maximal oxygen uptake, heart rate, peak power and stroke rate.
• A continuous or progressive incremental test which corresponds to standard exercise testing on a treadmill but suits the specificity of rowing (Mahler 1984). This test permits the gradual elevation of metabolic responses and cardio-vascular responses to determine:

  lactate threshold

  the point at which lactate begins to rise

  anaerobic threshold

  the point at which lactate begins to accumulate very quickly

  maximal oxygen uptake

  in relation to workload. It may also provide an estimation of anaerobic capacity (Hahn and Bourdon 1995).
• A discontinuous incremental test where blood sampling techniques may be applied. The main benefit of this type of testing is that blood lactate levels may be taken however it does not replicate the continuous nature of rowing competition (Koutedakis 1989).

Mahler et al (1984) compared results of the 6 minute all-out test against the progressive incremental test and demonstrated that peak power, peak VO₂ and peak heart rates were identical for the two protocols. Ratings of perceived exertion were also similar and the physiological responses appeared to reflect race simulation. The incremental test had the added benefit of evaluating anaerobic power. Interestingly the literature examined did not describe any tests of anaerobic nature which would describe the explosive power required for the first ten seconds of a race.

The Progressive Ergometer Test

The Test Methods Manual (Hahn and Bourdon 1995) recommend the Concept II ergometer as their instrument of choice and emphasise the importance of equipment checks prior to testing. Standardisation of testing is considered very important to achieve the most accurate results.

The subject for testing wears a heart rate monitor and breathing apparatus for gas analysis. Blood sampling from the earlobe or fingertip is necessary for recording lactate levels.

Prior to the test the subject may perform a few strokes on the ergometer to make adjustments for comfort and to check that any apparatus does not impede the rowing action. A warm up is contra-indicated prior to this test as it may influence early test results.

The incremental ergometer test to be described is based on 4 minute increments with a maximum of 7 stages. Each stage is separated by 1 minute recovery intervals. The work rates for steps one to six are chosen according to the athletes prior performance in a 2000m or 2500m timed test and converted into target pace and target metres for each workload. These values are shown in the table of "Rowing 4min Step Test Protocols" in the Test Methods Manual ( Hahn and Bourdon 1995). During the last four minutes ie step 7, the athlete is asked to maintain the fastest possible speed for the 4 minutes.

A blood lactate level is taken prior to commencement of the test to serve as a baseline measure, during all rest periods and at the end of the test. Stroke ratings, heart rate and metres completed are recorded for each workload and gas analysis is taken is based on 30 second sampling periods.

Analysis of the results will provide measurements of lactate threshold, anaerobic threshold and maximal oxygen uptake and workloads related to these parameters.

The onset of anaerobic metabolism may be determined by the point just prior to the non-linear increase in minute ventilation divided by oxygen consumption (VE/VO). As mentioned previously the onset of anaerobic threshold is an important determinant of rowing performance.

Normative data for this test are shown in Appendix 1 (see Test Methods Manual) and the rowing 4 minute step test protcols are shown in Appendix 2 (see Test Methods Manual).

2000 Metre Ergometer Test

The rowing ergometer is used once again for this test following the same requirements as above. Identical equipment should be used if one is comparing tests. This can be performed as a field test although obviously standardisation is more difficult.

This type of test is described in many articles and may be described as the 6 minute all-out test or the 2000m ergometer test (Hahn and Bourdon 1995, Mahler et al 1994, Kramer et al 1991). The test protocol described is taken from the Test Methods Manual (Hahn and Bordon 1995).

The athlete wears a heart monitor and gas analysis may be performed. The athlete is advised to perform a pre-test warm up of 5 minutes followed by 5 minutes rest.

At the point of commencement the athlete is instructed to row at maximal effort. It is of interest to note that during the six minute all-out test a coxwain dictates the stroke rate during the test similar to the role of the coxwain in a race situation (Mahler et al 1994).

During the test the number of metres is recorded at the end of each 30second period. Stroke ratings and heart rate are taken after each distance reading. The total time taken to reach 2000metres is recorded to the nearest 0.1second.

In the study by Mahler et al (1994) power was measured using a strain gauge in the pulley system to determine force and this was divided by the stroke rate as measured by time required to row 0.5km on the ergometer. Power was measured for each minute.

Maximal oxygen uptake is recorded as the highest value attained over a one minute period. Peak values of heart rate, ventilation and respiratory exchange ratio are also recorded as the highest values achieved over a one minute period.

Normative values for the 2000m timed test are shown in Appendix 1. (see Test Methods Manual)

Other Tests

Standard tests of anthropometry are usually performed on rowers of an ilete level along with weight and height, arm length and sitting height (Hahn and Bordon 1995).

A literature search revealed no specific tests for flexibility although it is reported that rowers require adequate flexibility to assume the correct postition in the boat (Kramer et al 1991).

Although an anaerobic test is not described in the literature the initial ten seconds of a race are performed at a cadence of 40 strokes/minute. Thereafter the stroke rate is dropped to 34 - 36 strokes per/minute until the final drive home. As a measure of anaerobic power one could use a ten second alactic power test based on that component of the Tri-Fitness Test (Telford et al 1987). Work could be calculated via a strain gauge and converted to power per kilogram weight.

Kramer et al (1991, 1994) has performed two studies to measure quadriceps strength due to the strong propulsive requirements of this muscle during leg drive. They measured concentric knee extensor torque about the knee and compared oarside and non oarside legs of sweep rowers using a KinCom dynamometer.

In order to mimic the rowing action velocities of were chosen to approximate 28 strokes per minute for five continuous repetitions. The concentric actions were tested at 180°/second and the eccentric at 120°/second. The rower was seated with the hips at 80 degrees of flexion and a strap secured the pelvis.

Data analysis was confined to the constant velocity portion of the torque curve and peak torque was determined as the sum of the highest single repetition peak torque. Work was measured as the total work performed over five repetitions.

A leg press was also performed using a Power Ram Sled/Hack leg press machine with the athlete in the back lying position. The athlete began the movement from a knee extended position and lowered the the sled at a 45 degree incline until the hips and knees were flexed approximately 120° and 100° respectively. This sequence was repeated at one minute intervals until 1RM was determined.

Once the 1RM was determined an endurance test was performed with 70% of the 1RM at a stroke rate of 28/minute terminating when the rower could not continue to lift at the prescribed cadence. The work done was measured by the number of repetitions multiplied by the vertical distance of the weight sled.

It was noted that although the results of both tests correlated highly for peak torque (r = 0.75) and for work done (r = 0.72), the leg press exercise (r = 0.51) correlated more highly than the leg extension test (r = 0.26 - 0.37) with performance.

Normative values for this sample of fifteen lightweight male oarsmen are shown in Table 1.

Table 1. Concentric and eccentric peak torque and average torque means and standard deviation (in brackets) of the knee extensor muscle group, for oarside and non-oarside limbs in lightweight sweep oarsmen, through the range of 10° to 90° flexion.

	Peak Torque (Nm)	Average Torque (Nm)
Concentric 160 deg/s (oarside)	202 (24)	171 (19)
Eccentric 160 deg/s (oarside)	273 (43)	228 (38)
Concentric 200 deg/s (oarside)	178 (22)	154 (19)
Eccentric 200 deg/s (oarside)	268 (48)	227 (40)
Concentric 160 deg/s (non-oarside)	191 (27)	165 (24)
Eccentric 160 deg/s (non-oarside)	265 (50)	222 (40)
Concentric 200 deg/s (non-oarside)	174 (21)	150 (22)
Eccentric 200 deg/s (non-oarside)	270 (58)	223 (47)

Conclusion

High aerobic and anaerobic capacity are required for success in rowing and therefore performance measures are required to determine not only peak physiological responses but also peak power.

The two tests described endeavour to incorporate both requirements so as to provide coaches with information as to the status of the athlete in order to direct training, prevent overtraining and choose teams for competition.

Other tests incorporating anthropometric data, flexibilty and strength measures are also important as part of an overall assessment of rowers.

References

Beneke R (1995)

Anaerobic threshold, individual anaerobic threshold and maximal lactate steady state in rowing. Medicine and Science in Sport and Exercise 27(6):863- 867.

Gajdosik R, Albert C and Mitman J (1994)

Influence of hamstring length on the standing position and flexion range of motion of the pelvic angle, lumbar angle and thoracic angle. Journal of Orthopaedic and Sports and Physical Therapy 20(4):213-219.

Gullstrand L (1996)

Physiological responses to short-duration high-intensity intermittent rowing. Canadian Journal of Applied Physiology 21(3):197-208.

Hahn A and Bourdon P (1995)

Protocols for the physiological assessment of rowers. Australian Sports Commission. Section 3.

Harvey D (1998)

Assessment of flexibility of elite athletes using the modified Thomas test. British Journal of Sports Medicine 32:68-70.

Koutedakis Y (1989)

The role of physiological assessment in team selection with special reference to rowing. British Journal of Sports Medicine 23(1):51-52.

Kramer J, Leger A and Morrow A (1991)

Oarside and non-oarside knee extensor measures and their relationship to rowing ergometer performance. Journal of Orthopaedic Sport and Physical Therapy 14(5):213-219.

Kramer J, Leger A, Paterson, D and Morrow A (1994)

Rowing performance and selected descriptive field and laboratory variables. Canadian Journal of Applied Science 19(2):174-184.

Lormes W, Buckwitz R, Rehbein H and Steinacker J M (1993)

Performance and blood lactate on Gjessing and Concept II rowing ergometers. International Journal of Sports Medicine 14 (Suppl 1):29-31.

Mahler DA, Andrea BE and Andresen DC (1984)

Comparison of 6-min "all-out" and incremental exercise tests in elite oarsmen. Medicine and Science in Sport and Exercise 16(6):567-571.

Messonier L, Freund H, Bourdin M, Belli A and Lacour J (1997)

Lactate exchange and removal abilities in rowing performance. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 29(3):396-401.

Roth W, Shwantitz P and Bauer P (1993)

Force time characteristics of the rowing stroke and corresponding physiological muscle adaptations. International Journal of Sports Medicine. 14(Suppl 1):23-34.

Smith R, Galloway M and Patton R (1993)

Ergometer based prediction of on-water rowing performance. Sports Coach April-June 24-26.

Steinacker J M (1993)

Physiological apsects of training in rowing. International Journal of Sports Medicine.14(Suppl 1):3-10.

Steinacker J M, Lormes W, Lehmann M and Altenburg D (1998)

Training of rowers before world championships. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 30(7):1158-1163.

Telford RD, Minikin BR, Hooper LA, Hahn AG and Tumilty D McA (1987)

The tri-level fitness profile. Excel 4(1):11-13.

Tumilty D, Hahn A and Telford R (1987)

Effect of test protocol, ergometer type and state of training on peak oxygen uptake of rowers. Excel 3(3):12-14.

Urhausen A, Weiler B and Kindermann W. (1993)

Heart rate, blood lactate and catecholamines during ergometer and on water rowing. International Journal of Sports Medicine. 14(Suppl 1):20-23.

Exercise Physiology Educational Resources 1998