Kayaking
Fitness Testing Assignment: Rowing - by Trish Formby
Contents
Introduction
Kayaking is a sporting activity characterised by exceptional demands on upper body performance (Tesch 1983). A successful kayaker requires high aerobic power, high anaerobic energy yield and great upper body muscle strength (Pickard and Pyke 1981, Tesch 1983).
Elite kayakers have been reported to possess a total body maximal oxygen uptake of 5.30-5.60 l.min-1 (Tesch 1983). Tesch's (1983) examination of the best Swedish kayakers suggests that individual, international successful performance at 1000 m distance is accomplished when maximal oxygen uptake exceeds 5.4 l.min-1. Similarly, during a 1000 m race, a peak oxygen consumption corresponding to at least 4.9 l.min-1 is desired.
Elite kayakers are also characterised by exhibiting great strength, anaerobic capacity and endurance of those muscles contributing to propelling the kayak (Pickard and Pyke 1981, Tesch 1983). Tesch (1983) reported that metabolic characteristics favouring endurance of muscles involved in both shoulder extensors and arm flexors are increased in kayakers. The low rate of fatigue development found is also consistent with the demonstration of a high percentage of high oxidative, slow twitch muscle fibres in the deltoid muscle of paddlers. It can be questioned whether a sufficient level of the specific muscular strength required can be evoked by intense paddling training only or whether complementary resistance training is needed and is an effective aid in improving kayak performance (Tesch 1983).
Pickard and Pyke (1981), Tesch (1983) and Telford (1980) suggest that elite paddlers exhibit superior anaerobic capacity for upper body exercise. The need for anaerobic energy production in competitive kayaking was also implied in the high blood lactate levels observed following racing. Also, as kayaking in competition relies on high maximal aerobic power, the anaerobic capacity is also of utmost importance for successful performance.
To meet the demands of kayaking, increased body dimensions seem to be a prequesite for success in flat water kayak competition. However, limitations with regard to construction of the boat make it difficult to prescribe the optimal advantageous size/weight for kayakers (Tesch 1983).
This paper will review some of the tests that are incorporated in the physiological assessment of the kayak paddler. The protocols described are mostly those developed for the physiological assessment of kayak paddlers based at the AIS Canoe Unit. The testing procedures provide coaches with information both to monitor and to modify training for optimal international performance (Draper et. al. 1991).
Aerobic Assessment
Mechanical Efficiency and Aerobic/Anaerobic Contribution
The air-braked K1 Kayak Ergometer and computer support package used for the laboratory tests described are the preferred testing appartus for paddlers in most performance laboratories in Australia as it simulates "the feel" of paddling on the water (Draper et. al. 1991).
According to Draper et. al. (1991), equipment required for the mechanical efficiency and aerobic/anaerobic contributions test include:
- Air braked K1 Kayak Ergometer
- computer/work monitor unit
- stopwatch
- expired gas analysis system as per general recommendations
- PE-4000 Sports Tester heart rate monitor.
Telford (1980) describes the efficiency measurement as the net aerobic efficiency, which is the work done divided by the energy used to do this work. It reflects the performer's skill in converting energy into the specific type of ergometer work.
The test is performed in two phases, separated by a 5 minute rest interval, which are: a 6 minute submaximal test followed by a 4 or 2 minute all out effort (performance test).
Oxygen consumption during the submaximal phase is used to calculate gross mechanical efficiency (GME). This value is then used to calculate the relative aerobic/anaerobic contributions in the second all out test (Draper et. al. 1991).
The work intensity set for the submaximal test should be a steady rate and sufficient to produce an R value of < 1.00. A value of 80-85% of the average work rate of the paddler's previous 4 or 2 minute test should be sufficient (Draper et. al. 1991).
The work load is gradually increased until the subject reaches a state of exhaustion. An expired gas analysis system provided measurements of lung ventilation, oxygen uptake and carbon dioxide production every 30 seconds throughout the test (pickard and Pyke 1981). Pickard and Pyke (1981) suggest that particular attention be given to the heart rate and oxygen uptake recorded during the fifth minute. They imply that this provides an indication of the energy cost of working sub-maximally on the ergometer and the efficiency of the cardiovascular system during this intensity of effort.
At the 6 minute mark, determine the steady state oxygen consumption during the test and from the corresponding R value, calculate the number of kilocalories per litre of oxygen (Draper et. al. 1991). At this point, the subject may have a 5-minute rest. During this time, the tester should convert the number of kilocalories into kilojoules per minute. The mean power output in watts (measured by the computer/work monitor unit) during the test, should be converted to kilojoules per minute. To calculate GME: (work done/energy expended) × 100 (Draper et. al. 1991).
The next stage is the performance test where the average oxygen consumption for the 4 or 2 minute all out test is calculated. Equipment required for this part of the test is the same as for the efficiency test except for equipment required for fingertip blood sampling. This includes:
- autolets, lancets and platforms
- pipette
- sterile alcohol swabs
- tissues
- heparinized capillary tube
- bandaids
- hazard bags
- sharps container
- gloves.
The two tests, which function to monitor training programmes include:
- a 4-minute test which simulates the 1000m event for males
- a 2-minute test which simulates the 500m event for both males and females
(Draper et. al. 1991).
After the 5 minute rest period, the paddler is instructed to treat the test as a simulated race and to pace it accordingly. Therefore, tactical, psychological and physiological parameters are involved. The idea is to perform as much work as possible as indicated by the accrued KJ on the computer. A chart recorder can be used to monitor changes in work rate for the duration of the test. Heart rates obtained during this test should be close to those which would be achieved under race conditions. Two finger samples are taken for blood lactate measures before the start of the test to obtain a resting value, and 3 minutes after completion of the test (Draper et. al. 1991).
The average oxygen consumption for the 4 or 2 minute all out test can be calculated and then is converted to kilojoules per minute. To obtain the aerobic contribution the above value is multiplied by the GME. The average power output for the 4 or 2 minute test is then converted to kilojoules per minute to estimate the total energy expended. From this total, the aerobic contribution is subtracted to obtain the anaerobic contribution (Draper et. al. 1991).
A limitation encountered for the 4 or 2 minute tests is that heart rates and lactate values obtained during the tests are marginally higher (4-5 beats per minute) than would be obtained during a similar activity performed on the water (Draper et. al. 1991).
| Males (N=8) | Females (N=6) | |
|---|---|---|
| Mean Work Output (kJ) | 78.0 | 26.2 |
| Work Output Standard Deviation | 7.0 | 3.9 |
Adapted from Draper et. al. (1991).
Anaerobic Assessment
Blood Lactate Profile
The capacity to perform all out exercise for brief periods of time (up tp 60 seconds) depends mainly on ATP generated by the immediate and short term anaerobic energy systems. As the duration of all out effort extends past 10 seconds, anaerobic energy generated in glycolysis increases (McArdle et. al. 1996). Repeated bouts of up to one minute of maximum exercise, stopped at about 30 seconds before subjective reports of exhaustion, cause blood lactate levels to increase near maximum levels. Each bout should be repeated after 3-5 minutes recovery (McArdle et. al. 1996).
The purpose of the blood lactate profile test is to generate a blood lactate profile, from which the Individual Anaerobic Threshold (IAT) can be determined for prescription of training workloads (Draper et. al. 1991). It is crucial to set a training programme that targets the specific muscle groups that require enhanced anaerobic capacity to mimic the demands required by the particular sport (McArdle 1996). Equipment required for this test are: Air-braked K1 Kayak Ergometer; computer/work monitor unit; stop watch; expired gas analysis system; PE-4000 sports tester heart rate monitor; a tray is prepared with equipment for fingertip blood sampling - autolets, lancets and platforms, pipette, sterile alcohol swabs, tissues, heparinized cappilary tube, bandaids, hazard bags, sharps container, gloves.
The test is incremental and requires about 30-40 minutes to complete. A resting blood lactate sample is taken prior to commencement of the warm up. The kayaker, using the air-braked KI Kayak Ergometer, will then warm up for 5 minutes with a 2 minute recovery period. The kayaker will be required to maintain a given workload for 5 minutes. At the end of that time, there will be a 1 minute break, during which time a blood sample is taken for lactate analysis. The protocol will proceed from a starting work rate and 5 minute work increments until the kayaker cannot maintain the required power output (Draper et. al. 1991, Pickard and Pyke 1981, Telford 1980, Tesch 1983).
Draper et. al. (1991) provides values for starting work rates and increments for males and females for elite and junior paddlers at the AIS (Table 2).
| Males | Females | |
|---|---|---|
| Elite Paddlers | ||
| Commencement Work Rate | 100 watts | 75 watts |
| Work Rate Increment | 50 watts | 25 watts |
| Junior Paddlers | ||
| Commencement Work Rate | 75 watts | 50 watts |
| Work Rate Increment | 25 watts | 25 watts |
The VE, VO2, VCO2, R RE/VO2 and VE/VO2 values are recorded for each minute of the test using the expired gas analysis system. Heart rate is recorded during the last 10 seconds of each 5 minute work period. Actual work done is recorded during each 5 minute work period. Blood samples are drawn for lacate analysis at the end of each 5 minute work period at the completion of the test and at 1.0, 3.0, 5.0 and 7.0 minutes of recovery. The kayaker remains seated on the ergometer during the recovery period (Draper et. al. 1991).
The limitations of this test include: test conditions must be standardised as alterations to the blood lactate response have been found to occur prior to exercise, with low muscle glycogen levels, anaemia, with use of caffeine, with extreme deviations in ambient temperature and acid-base balance. These factors may lead to a shift to the left or right of the blood lactate curve which may complicate the interpretation of values (Draper et. al. 1991).
To obtain results, the blood lactate concentration is plotted against time during exercise and the recovery period. A line is drawn from the lactate curve to the recovery curve at a point where the blood lactate values are equivalent. Then, a tangent is drawn from the recovery curve back to the point on the exercise profile where the blood lactate concentration is 3.72 mmol.l-1. This is the IAT and heart rate at this point of the exercise test should be noted (Draper et. al. 1991).
The Submaximal Lactate Test
For this test the critical power is determined and the work rate obtained (in watts) is then used as an imposed work rate for the submaximal lactate test. The aims of this test are to evaluate blood lactate concentration and determine optimal training intensity based on heart rate (Draper et. al. 1991). Tesch (1983) found that elite paddlers exhibit superior anaerobic capacity for upper body exercise as the need for anaerobic energy production in competitive kayaking was implied in the high blood lactate levels observed following racing. Tesch (1983) was in agreement with previous literature that competition in events relying on high maximal aerobic power, the anaerobic (glycolytic) capacity also seems to be important for successful performance.
Equipment required for this test are: Air-braked K1 Kayak ergometer, computer/work monitor unit, stopwatch, PE4000 Sports Tester heart rate monitor, equipment for fingertip blood sampling as previously mentioned (Draper et. al. 1991).
The test is conducted for 30 minutes of work (6 × 5 minute work intervals) at the work rate set for the athlete. At the end of each work period, a fingertip blood sample is collected for lactate analysis. Heart rate data is obtained at 1 minute intervals during the test. During the test, the paddler is kept to the prescribed work rate by verbal information indicating the required kJ that should be completed each minute. These were calculated in the critical power test. The actual work rate (in watts) is calculated by the kilojoules expended per minute which is read from the computer. At the end of the test, the lactate curve obtained is examined for a lactate steady state. This is defined as a concentration which does not vary by more than 1mmol.l-1 during a 20 minute period (Draper et. al. 1991). The heart rate for the last 3 minutes of each 5 minute work period is averaged. The heart rate range obtained, matching with the lactate steady state, is used for prescription of training (Draper et. al. 1991).
Draper et. al. (1991) proposed some limitations of the test. Firstly, if the athlete cannot maintain the imposed work rate, it is suggested that the athlete self selects a work rate which can be maintained for the entire test period.
Another limitation is that variable work rates during the test make interpretation of the blood lactate response and consequent heart rate ranges difficult. Also, a heart rate range is used for training prescription because the heart rate obtained during laboratory testing is slightly higher (4-5 beats per minute) than that attained on the water. The lower end of the given range approximates a value that is achievable on the water.
| Males (N=8) | Females (N=6) | |
|---|---|---|
| Mean Heart Rate | 222.6 | 141.3 |
| Heart Rate Standard Deviation | 21.1 | 22.6 |
(Draper et. al. 1991)
Anthropometry
The aim of this test is to measure body composition. Equipment required, according to Draper et. al. (1991) are: Balance scale accurate to ±0.05 Kg; stadiometer mounted on a wall; skinfold calipers; marking pen and anthropometric tape. Measurments required are : Standing height (cm); sitting height (cm); body weight (Kg); and skinfold thickness (mm).
The power to body weight ratio is a very important component of fitness for all athletes. With kayaking, the desirable power is both an aerobic and an anaerobic component which can be improved by training. This power to weight ratio can also be enhanced by reducing the body mass, if the power is maintained. In order to do this, the quantity of body fat must be reduced because if muscle mass were reduced, power may be compromised (Telford et. al. 1984).
The two most common methods for measuring body fat are underwater weighting and taking skinfold measuremants (Telford et. al. 1984). The method of assessment at the AIS has been to compare the totals of skinfold measures and also to compare the values at specific sites for each athlete rather than attempt to estimate a specific figure for percent body fat (Telford et. al. 1984).
A balance scale is used to measure body weight and height is measured with a stadiometer. Skinfold calipers are used for all the skin fold measurements. The pressure exerted on the calipers should be ten grams.cm-2. It is vital to have consistent pressure exerted on the skin to provide valid and reliable measures. Also, the time in which the skin pressure is exerted on the skin should be, consistently, of 2 seconds duration. The procedure is to then allow the skin to fall back into place and repeat the measure after 20 seconds (Telford et. al. 1984).
The average of the two values is taken as the measurement. For consistency of comparison, all measurements are taken on the right side of the body with the subject standing (except for the calf measurement where the athlete is seated) (Telford et. al. 1984).
The following sites are used for the measurements:
- Triceps
- Midway between the acromion and olecranon process on the posterior aspect of the arm, the arm held vertical with the fold running parallel to the length of the arm.
- Subscapular
- A fold running downward and laterally at 30 degrees from the vertical 1 cm below the inferior angle of the scapula.
- Calf
- The athlete is seated with the lower leg vertical. A fold at the greatest circumference is taken medially and vertically.
- Biceps
- Midway between the acromion process and the antecubital space.
- Spurailiac
- 4 cm above the ASIS, the fold parallel to fibres of the external oblique.
- Abdomen
- A vertical fold adjacent to the umbillicus.
- Thigh
- On the anterior midline halfway from the ASIS to the top of the patella.
- Axilla
- On the mid-axillary line at the level of the xiphoid process with the athlete's hand on his head (Telford et. al. 1984).
The limitation of anthropometry is unreliability. It is recommended to mark the site with a skin marker so that error involved is reduced. It is also important that the athlete be measured by one person only during repeated examinations, as reproducibility is compromised when different testers are used. Finally, the error is greater with greater deposit of adipose tissue (Telford et. al. 1984).
Draper et. al. (1991) have provided some expected anthropometric values for male and female kayakers tested at the AIS Sports Science Laboratory (Table 4).
| Characteristic | Males Mean and (SD) | Females Mean and (SD) |
|---|---|---|
| Standing Height (cm) | 182.8 (3.97) | 170.8 (3.03) |
| Sitting Height (cm) | 94.50 (1.88) | 89.25 (2.56) |
| Body Weight (kg) | 85.8 (5.19) | 66.5 (3.43) |
| Sum of Skinfolds (mm) | 61.4 (11.57) | 94.3 (20.86) |
Summary
In summary, with fitness testing, the correct action must be used for the profile to reflect the athlete's ability to coordinate the appropriate trained muscle groups in the development of power (Telford 1980). Therefore, it is more likely to specifically assess the kayaker's performance profile from an exercise involving the trained motor pattern (Telford 1980). This is why the Air-braked KI Kayak Ergometer was designed (Draper et. al. 1991). The measurement of VO2 max must reflect the athlete's ability to deliver oxygen through local circulations of the specifically trained muscle groups and also reflect the ability of the trained muscle mass to utilise the oxygen (Telford 1980). Also, using the specific equipment to mimic the task demands allows realistic values of blood lactate levels which reveals how much anaerobic capacity is required for the task. Therefore, training parameters can be set based on this information (Tesch 1983).
Anthropometric measures allow the athlete to gain or maintain certain body dimensions which enable successful performance in kayaking (Tesch 1983).
References
- Draper J, Minikin B, Telford R (Eds) (1991)
- Test Methods Manual. National Sports Research Centre Canberra: Belconnen.
- McArdle WD, Katch FI and Katch VL (1996)
- Exercise Physiology : Energy, Nutrition and Human Performance (4th ed.). Philadelphia: Lea and Febiger.
- Pickard R and Pyke F (1981)
- Assessment of the strength and endurance of surf-ski paddlers. Sports Coach 5:23-26.
- Telford R (1980)
- Methods for measuring specific performance profiles of cyclists, rowers and kayak-canoeists. Sports Coach 4:5-9.
- Telford R, Tumulty D and Damm G (1984)
- Skinfold measurements in well performed Australian athletes. Sports Science and Medicine Quarterly 1:13-16.
- Tesch PA (1983)
- Physiological characteristics of elite kayak paddlers. Canadian Journal of Applied Sport Science 8:87-91.
