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Curtin University of Technology
School of Physiotherapy

Cycling

Fitness Testing Assignment: Cycling - by Alison Low

Contents

Introduction

Competitive cycling is a varied and challenging sport. The races range from 200m match sprints that last approximately 10 seconds, to the gruelling Tour de France, which lasts 23 days and covers 5000 km (Burke 1980). This review will focus on the physiological profile and monitoring of road cyclists who compete in the 40-km time trial. In 1990, the time for an international calibre 40-km time trial was less than 56 minutes (Coyle et al 1990), therefore it is not surprising that one of the best determinants for success in road cycling is maximal oxygen consumption (VO2 max). However explosive anaerobic power plays a significant role in breakaway attempts, hill climbing and sprints towards the finish line. By riding in a pack, McCole and colleagues (1990) have shown that a cyclist in a mass start event may achieve as much as a 39% reduction in energy expenditure. Consequently it may not be the athlete with the highest aerobic power that crosses the line first; instead the order of the finish may be determined by sprinting ability (Tanaka et al 1993). Thus, anaerobic testing of a road cyclist is equally as important as determining aerobic ability.

The performance of today's athletes is due to a complex blend of many factors including genetic endowment, training and the health/nutritional status of the athlete (MacDougall, Wenger and Green 1991). There is an increasing trend towards a more scientific approach to training as athletes and coaches attempt to maximise performance whilst minimising the effects of overtraining (such as overtraining syndrome and overuse injuries). According to MacDougall, Wenger and Green (1991) physiological testing of athletes is beneficial in four ways:

When designing a physiological testing program for any athlete a number of factors must be considered (MacDougall, Wenger and Green 1991). One of the most important aspects is that the variables tested are relevant to the athlete's sport, for example flexibility is not as important for cyclists as it is for gymnasts. The tests that are selected should be valid and reliable to ensure that they are as meaningful as possible and the administration of the tests must be rigidly controlled and reproducible. Furthermore the tests must be repeated at regular intervals to assess training effectiveness, yearly testing is of little benefit to the athlete and coach. Each test must be as sports specific as possible. This may seem uncomplicated during physiological testing of the cyclist as a large number of �standard' tests employ a laboratory cycle ergometer to investigate performance. However many experienced cyclists have difficulty assuming their normal riding position during these tests and as such there has been a recent swing towards the use of air-brake cycle stimulators (Palmer et al 1996). Such simulators allow the cyclists to ride their own bike in the laboratory and therefore they increase the sports specificity of the testing. An alternative to these simulators is a road ergometer, which is specifically designed for assessing cyclists involved in road training and competition events (Craig et al 1996). Finally the human rights of the athlete must be respected and ethical criteria met, part of which includes prompt interpretation of the test results to the athlete and coach directly.

This review will describe the physical characteristics of a successful 40-km time trial cyclist and elaborate on three of the most useful tests to monitor their physiological performance. It is by no means exhaustive and deliberately ignores other factors for success in road cycling such as team work, aerodynamics, biomechanical skill, tactics and experience acquired in years of road racing (Tanaka et al 1993).

Body Type

Kinanthropometry has been defined as an emerging scientific specialisation that employs measurements to appraise human size, shape, proportion, composition, maturation and gross function and that explores problems related to growth, exercise, performance and nutrition (Ross and Marfell-Jones 1991). Kinanthropometric measurements have been reported in a large proportion of published data on the physical characteristics of elite cyclists. However the relationship of these measurements to performance is not well documented and it may be wise to be circumspect about their relevance.

Cyclists are said to be taller and heavier than distance runners, but similar to canoeists, ice hockey players and speed skaters (Burke 1980). The mean height and weight of 40 male road cyclists studied at the 1969 world championships was 175cm and 70 kg respectively (Burke 1980). In 1997 10 elite male road cyclists were studied and a mean height of 182cm and weight of 72.6kg was found (Randall et al 1997). This demonstrates an increase in both variables of approximately 3.6%, which may be attributable to any number of factors. Additional, non-functional weight of either the rider or the bike has a quadruple effect of slowing the rider down, therefore skin fold testing (and percentage body fat) is essential (Craig et al 1996). Firstly the added weight will increase inertia and thus slow the rate of acceleration, secondly it will limit hill climbing ability, thirdly it will increase the rolling resistance on the tyres and lastly it will have a significant impact on the cyclist's frontal area. Thus it is not surprising that there has been a decline in the percentage body fat in the elite cycling population as reported in the literature from 1969 (7.1%) to 1997 (5.8%). A similar decline in percentage body fat has been found in female road cyclists, with 15.4% reported by Wilmore and co-authors in 1977 (cited in Burke 1980) but only 11.9% reported in 1997 (Randall et al 1997).

There is no documentation in the literature reviewed specifically targeting agility and flexibility of elite cyclists. This suggests that such data is not considered relevant to performance in the 40-km time trial.

Re: Appendix 1 Anthropometric data for male and female high performance cyclists (Craig et al 1996).

Aerobic Capacity

Aerobic power is the rate at which energy is provided for aerobic metabolism. Theoretically this commences after the third minute, once the alactic and anaerobic gycolytic pathways have been depleted (Thoden 1991). The rate at which aerobic metabolism supplies energy to the aerobic machinery of muscle is dependent on two mechanisms. Firstly the combined abilities of pulmonary, cardiac, blood, vascular and cellular mechanisms to transport oxygen and secondly the chemical ability of the tissues to use oxygen in breaking down fuels (Thoden 1991).

It is generally accepted that aerobic power can be assessed by investigating maximal responses (such as VO2 max or HRmax) or responses at the lactate threshold. Successful athletes that participate in sports that demand a sustained effort generally possess much higher maximal aerobic responses than those who participate in shorter or intermittent duration events (Thoden 1991). The highest relative values are typically found in Nordic skiers and middle distance runners, whereas the highest absolute values are seen in physically large and well trained athletes who participate in sports such as cycling, skating and rowing where the body weight is externally supported (Thoden 1991).

Lactate threshold testing attempts to address the issue of interdependency of the three energy pathways, specifically the increasing involvement of anaerobic metabolism as exercise intensity increases (Thoden 1991). The intensity at which persistent increases in blood lactate concentration begins, has been adopted as an identity point that indicates the augmentation of aerobic energy pathways with anaerobic metabolism. The critical intensity at which the increase in lactate occurs has been labelled the anaerobic threshold, lactate threshold or the onset of blood lactate accumulation (OBLA) (Thoden 1991). The lactate threshold is of interest as exercise below this point is limited ultimately only by the availability of carbohydrate (blood glucose and muscle glycogen), as long as the temperature does not rise dramatically, soft tissues are not excessively damaged, or motivation does not decline. When the lactate threshold is exceeded the rate of lactate accumulation is related to the length of time exercise can be sustained (Thoden 1991).

Maximal aerobic power is generally strongly related to lactate threshold, but the relative significance of both relies heavily on the sport in which the athlete is competing. Theoretically in longer duration events such as the 40-km time trial, lactate threshold is a better predictor of success than maximal aerobic capacity. Lucia and colleagues (1998) support this theory reporting that "VO2 max per se is not necessarily a good predictor of (cycling) performance". However VO2 max has been demonstrated to be a strong predictor (r= -0.91) of cycling performance in a 14 day stage race among trained female cyclists (Pfeiffer et al cited in Randall et al 1997). Moreover, it has been demonstrated that there is a direct relationship between VO2 max values and racing category, with those cyclists demonstrating the highest VO2 max values also racing at the highest level. VO2 max values for elite male cyclists have been reported in the recent literature to be in the range of approximately 4.9 l.min-1 to 5.09 l.min-1 (Coyle et al 1990, Lucia et al 9198, Randall et al 1997, and Tanaka et al 1993). There are fewer reports in the literature of elite female cyclists, however VO2 max values have been reported to be in the range of 3.05 l.min-1 to 3.52 l.min-1 (Randall et al 1997 and Tanaka 1993). In general there has been less emphasis on heart rate responses of elite cyclists in the literature, with maximal values reported by one group of authors as 188 bpm.

Coyle et al (1988) demonstrated that lactate threshold V02 is a strong predictor (r=0.96) of endurance performance amongst trained cyclists with similar maximal aerobic power (cited in Randall 1997). In 1990 Coyle and co-workers used forward multiple regression to demonstrate that V02 at lactate threshold was one of 5 factors that best predicted time trial performance (r=0.99). These findings present evidence to support the hypothesis that lactate threshold is a better predictor of success than maximal aerobic capacity (Thoden 1991). Furthermore Olds and colleagues (cited in Craig et al 1996) have suggested that a 10% improvement in anaerobic threshold would decrease a 26km individual time trial by approximately 4%. V02 at lactate threshold for elite male cyclists has been reported in the literature to be approximately 80% of VO2 max values with a heart rate of 169 bpm also at lactate threshold.

Re: Appendix 2 Aerobic power data for male and female high performance cyclists and Blood lactate transition threshold data for high performance cyclists (Craig et al 1996).

Anaerobic Capacity

"There is a common acceptance by coaches and sports scientists that efforts of short duration and maximum intensity are highly dependent on anaerobic pathways, however relatively little information is available concerning the contribution of anaerobic metabolism to success in sports performance" (Bouchard 1991).

Although this statement was made regarding all sports it is certainly true for cycling; of the papers reviewed only one performed a true anaerobic test. This is despite the belief that explosive anaerobic power plays a significant role in break away attempts, hill climbing and final sprints during competition, and that in many races it is the sprinting ability of the cyclist that determines the outcome (Tanaka et al 1993). The relationship between international class cyclists and their performance on short-term ergometer tests has been established by White and Al-Dawalibi. (cited in Craig et al 1991)

Tanaka and colleagues (1993) performed a Wingate anaerobic test on 9 elite male cyclists. They calculated peak power, mean power and fatigue index (difference between the peak power and the lowest 5-s power output divided by peak power) for the 30-second maximal test. The peak power that was achieved was approximately 13.86 W/kg with a % fatigue index of 34.25, this compares favourably to the anaerobic data reported on sedentary young males, who demonstrated a peak power of 9.3 W/kg and a % fatigue index of 40 (Bouchard 1991).

Re: Appendix 3 Alactic power and capacity data for high performance sprint cyclists (Craig et al 1996).

Strength and Power

The relevance of testing pure strength and power in endurance sports such as the 40-km time trial has been questioned. However it is postulated that a stronger athlete will have greater endurance with heavy loads eg. An athlete with a 1RM of 2000N will sustain an 800N load (equal to 40% of the maximum) for 2-3 minutes, whereas an athlete with a 1RM of 100 (equal to 80% of the maximum) will only be able to sustain the same load for 15-20 seconds (Sale 1991). Furthermore there is a train of thought, which suggests that strength training will supplement certain types of endurance performance (particularly those requiring fast twitch fibre recruitment) in individuals already conditioned for endurance activities (Hickson et al 1988). Therefore it can be argued that the assessment of strength and power are relevant contributions to the physiological assessment of the elite cyclist.

Testing Procedures

A review of the available literature reveals that there has been no reported strength testing of elite cyclists on isokinetic devices. However there are numerous reports of power output largely related to aerobic activity at VO2 max and lactate threshold with one group of authors investigating power output during the anaerobic Wingate test (Tanaka et al 1993).

The following three tests allow for the measurement of some of these physiological factors.

VO2 max Testing

When performing a VO2 max test, there are a number of factors that should be considered. The initial work rates should be of a low enough intensity to serve as a warm-up (Thoden 1991); it is suggested that for elite male road cyclists this will be approximately 150W and for elite female road cyclists it will be approximately 125W (Craig et al 1996). The progressive work increments (ramp increases) should be small enough to avoid undue increases in lactate and local muscle fatigue. However they should be large enough so as to avoid prolonging the test unnecessarily and potentially creating problems of susbstrate depletion, anxiety, physical discomfort or boredom, which may impair the ability to generate true values for aerobic capacity (Thoden 1991). Incremental increases of 25W are suggested for elite male and female road cyclists (Craig et al 1996).

It is important that the exercise performed during the VO2 max test is closely representative of the cyclist's competitive activity (Thoden 1991). It is preferable to use an air-braked cycle ergometer that allows the cyclist to use their own bicycle, and therefore ensures high specificity to their sport (Palmer et al 1996). If this cannot be achieved then every attempt should be made to duplicate as closely as possible the subjects' own bicycle (Tanaka 1993). The test methods manual for elite Australian road cyclists employs a specifically designed air-braked road ergometer with a 48 tooth chain ring on the crank to a 14 tooth sproket on intermediate drive (Craig et al 1996).

The recommended pedalling rate during a VO2 max for an elite male cyclist is between 90-100 rpm and for an elite female cyclist it is between 80 and 90 rpm (Craig et al 1996). Whatever the pedalling rate it is important to ensure that the power output is roughly comparable between stages (Thoden 1991). To ensure power output is comparable the cyclist should be informed prior to the commencement of the test, to pedal at a constant workload for 1 minute work durations (Craig et al 1996). The cyclist should also be informed that the test is continuous and that they may only stop on a full minute or 30s interval, when the required workload can no longer be maintained. Once the cyclist commits to a 30 or 60s interval they are required to complete the interval even if they cannot sustain the required workload (Craig et al 1996).

The following data should be collected when performing a VO2 max test: VO2, VCO2, %SaO2, RER, VE, VE/VO2, VE/VCO2 and power output for each 30s of the test. The VO2 max is the average of the highest two consecutive readings. To ensure accurate calculations of inspiratory and expiratory gas, the respiratory valve mouthpiece and nose clip must be worn throughout the whole test. Heart rate is recorded at the last 10s of minute or the last 30s of each interval. If peak blood lactate is required, then blood samples are taken at the completion of the test and at 1, 2, 5 and 7 minutes post exercise. The cyclist must stay on the ergometer in the seated position and is not allowed to warm down until after the last sample has been taken (Craig et al 1996).

To summarise: The VO2 max test for an elite male or female cyclist begins with a 5 minute warm-up at 150W or 125W respectively. This is followed by a starting workload of 175W (males) or 150W (females). Work intervals are set at either 30 or 60s and increased incrementally at 25W until the athlete can no longer maintain the required workload, the average of the highest two consecutive readings is the VO2 max (Craig et al 1996). The athlete may not warm down and must stay upon the ergometer if peak blood lactate is being assessed until after the 7th minute.

Lactate Threshold Testing

There continues to be some debate in the literature as to onset of lactate threshold and its associated characteristics with respiratory events (Thoden 1991). A popular option of identifying lactate threshold is to use a standard value of 4 mmol.l-1, however some exercise physiologists advocate the use graphical techniques to calculate individual anaerobic thresholds (Thoden 1991). Although it is generally agreed that each work increment should be small to isolate the lactate threshold (~1 MET), the length of time an athlete is exposed to the work increment remains contentious. It is thought that work increments of at least 2 minutes in duration are sufficient to allow for an assessment in the steady-state nature of blood lactate, with longer increments increasing the accuracy.

To begin the test the athlete is connected to all appropriate measuring equipment such as mouth-piece, heart rate monitor and pulse oximeter. As for the VO2 max test an air-braked cycle ergometer that allows the cyclist to use their own bicycle, or an air-braked road ergometer should be used (Craig et al 1996 and Palmer et al 1996). A warm-up of 5 minutes should precede the test at 75-100W for both elite male and female cyclists. As for the VO2 max test the recommended pedalling rate for an elite male cyclist is between 90-100 rpm and for an elite female cyclist it is between 80 and 90 rpm (Craig et al 1996). The starting workload for elite Australian cyclists is 100W which is increased each workload increment by 50W (male) and 25W (female) for the duration of the test. The cyclist is then required to pedal at a constant workload for 2-5 minute work increments (the Test Methods Manual for elite Australian road cyclists uses workloads of 5 minutes duration) (Craig et al 1996, Thoden 1991). Throughout the testing protocol it is recommended that the cyclist is given continual information concerning cadence ranges and target power outputs to ensure these parameters stay in the required range (Craig et al 1996). According to the protocol conducted by Craig et al (1996) the athlete is allowed to drink during the first 2.5 minute of each testing increment.

A pre-warmup blood sample is taken from the finger tip (or earlobe) for analysis of lactate concentration, pH, blood gases and bicarbonate. Throughout the test, blood is collected from the fingertip during the last 30 seconds of each 5 minute work duration and analysed as per the pre-exercise blood sample (Craig et al 1996). The test methods manual reports the following indices for elite Australian road cyclists for each threshold: VO2, %VO2 max, HR, %HRmax, PO and pH (Craig et al 1996). This group enters the results from the test to a software package to calculate individual anaerobic threshold (IAT) and oxygen uptake and heart rate at these thresholds. Craig et al (1996) use the data generated from the lactate threshold testing to calculate training intensities generated by the test, but monitored by HR monitoring (and thus potentially used by the cyclist during training):

Endurance 1 (E1): <LTHR ± 1TEM
Endurance 2 (E2): (LTHR = 1 TEM) - (IATHR - 1 TEM)
Endurance 3 (E3): IATHR ± TEM
Endurance 4 (E4): > IATHR+ TEM

Note: LTHR = lactate threshold heart rate, IATHR = individual anaerobic threshold heart rate , and TEM = Technical Error of Measurement (Pederson & Gore 1994 cited in Craig et al 1996)

Alactic Power and Capacity

Anaerobic tests can be grouped into short term, intermediate and long term anaerobic tests (Bouchard et al 1991). There are many different tests that asses anaerobic ability, the test of choice for the test methods manual for elite Australian road cyclists is a 10 second all-out effort. As for the previous tests, measures of anaerobic power and capacity are the most relevant when they simulate the actual mode of exercise and use specific muscle groups that are utilised in the athlete' sport (Bouchard et al 1991). The track ergometer is connected to an interface unit and the appropriate information is entered into the computer software. The cyclist is allowed the warm-up of their choice , this is recorded by the tester. The test is then an all out effort (no pacing technique allowed) with the cyclist remaining in the seat at all times (Craig et al 1996).

Age, height, mass and calculated frontal surface area is collected. A computer software package is used to calculate work done, accumulated work done, average power output and average cadence for each 1 second sampling period. From this information a summary table depicting peak cadence, peak power (absolute and relative), minimum power (absolute and relative), percentage drop-off in power, total work (absolute and relative) and average power (absolute and relative) is produced.

Conclusion

Physiological testing of an athlete is now an integral part of elite sport. It is imperative that the individual conducting these tests has a good understanding of the specific demands of the sport (energy systems and skills) and an active knowledge of contemporary research in order to maximise benefits for the athlete and coach (Macfarlane 1991). This review has attempted to discuss the physiological characteristics of a successful 40-km road cyclist and the tests that most effectively measure these attributes. It may be that with further advancements in exercise physiology these tests become redundant, but the author believes them to be the most effective current methods.

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Exercise Physiology Educational Resources 1998